Black History Month Part 6: We Were Never Less: The Defiant Ascent of Black America: The Architecture of Exclusion – Footnotes

  1. Federal Housing Administration, Underwriting Manual (Washington: FHA, 1938), Part II, Section 9, paragraph 937. https://www.huduser.gov/portal/sites/default/files/pdf/Federal-Housing-Administration-Underwriting-Manual.pdf
  2. HMDA Annual Data. Consumer Financial Protection Bureau. https://www.consumerfinance.gov/data-research/hmda/
  3. CRA Examination Reports. Federal Financial Institutions Examination Council. https://www.ffiec.gov/cra/
  4. Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, Survey of Consumer Finances, 2022. https://www.federalreserve.gov/publications/files/scf23.pdf
  5. Debbie Gruenstein Bocian et al., Foreclosures by Race and Ethnicity (Durham: Center for Responsible Lending, 2010). https://www.responsiblelending.org/mortgage-lending/research-analysis/foreclosures-by-race-and-ethnicity.pdf
  6. Andre Perry et al., ‘The Devaluation of Assets in Black Neighborhoods,’ Brookings Institution, 2021. https://www.brookings.edu/research/devaluation-of-assets-in-black-neighborhoods/
  7. Ann Choi et al., ‘Long Island Divided,’ Newsday, November 17, 2019. https://projects.newsday.com/long-island/real-estate-agents-investigation/
  8. Richard Rothstein, The Color of Law (New York: Liveright, 2017), 63–64.
  9. Ira Katznelson, When Affirmative Action Was White (New York: Norton, 2005), 113–141.
  10. U.S. Census Bureau, Quarterly Residential Vacancies and Homeownership, 2023. https://www.census.gov/housing/hvs/
  11. Civil Rights Cases, 109 U.S. 3 (1883); Plessy v. Ferguson, 163 U.S. 537 (1896); Corrigan v. Buckley, 271 U.S. 323 (1926).
  12. Shelby County v. Holder, 570 U.S. 529 (2013); Students for Fair Admissions v. Harvard, 600 U.S. 181 (2023).